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Wood-derived catalysts for green and stable Fenton-like chemistry: From basic mechanisms to catalytic modules and future inspiration

Xiaoyun Lei ,  Hanghang Zhao ,  Chao Bai ,  Longlong Geng ,  Xing Xu

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Citation:  Xiaoyun Lei, Hanghang Zhao, Chao Bai, Longlong Geng, Xing Xu. Wood-derived catalysts for green and stable Fenton-like chemistry: From basic mechanisms to catalytic modules and future inspiration[J]. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2025, 36(10): 111550. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2025.111550 shu

Wood-derived catalysts for green and stable Fenton-like chemistry: From basic mechanisms to catalytic modules and future inspiration

English

  • 1. Introduction

    As one of the most pressing environmental challenges globally, water pollution has garnered significant attentions from the international community [1–4]. Statistical data indicate that substantial quantities of refractory antibiotics, such as endocrine disruptors, persistent organic pollutants, and other contaminants are discharged into aquatic systems annually. Their high chemical toxicity and persistence pose severe threats to human health and the ecological balance [5–14]. However, traditional degradation technologies have difficulty effectively mineralizing these pollutants and their intermediate products into carbon dioxide and water molecules, thus leading to the long-term accumulation of by-products in the environment [3,15–18]. In contrast, advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are considered highly promising for wastewater treatment due to their superior mineralization capabilities and non-selective degradation characteristics [8–11,19–26]. Among all AOPs-based systems, the heterogeneous Fenton-like reactions demonstrate notable advantages over their traditional homogeneous counterparts, such as a broader pH applicability range and enhanced operational stability [20,27–41]. Nevertheless, current heterogeneous catalysts still encounter issues like insufficient activity and the loss of active components. Consequently, developing heterogeneous catalysts with high catalytic activity, excellent stability, and scalability remains a critical task in AOPs domain [42–47].

    Currently, common carriers for heterogeneous catalysts include metal oxides (e.g., MgO, TiO2, Fe2O3) [16,48–50], carbon-based materials (e.g., graphene, activated carbon) [51–56], and composite materials [25,26,57–67]. Although these carriers have improved catalyst dispersion and stability to some extent, significant limitations still persist. For instance, metal oxide carriers tend to aggregate, substantially reducing their specific surface area and catalytic efficiency [8,23,40,68]. Traditional carbon-based materials are constrained in practical applications due to their single pore structure or inadequate electrical conductivity [51,56,69]. Moreover, some high-performance carriers face challenges such as high fabrication costs and difficulties in large-scale production, further impeding their widespread industrial adoption [19,20,70–74]. Therefore, it is imperative to develop novel, highly efficient carriers with high stability, low cost, and scalability to enhance the overall performance of heterogeneous catalysts.

    Wood, as a biomass material with rich usability and significant potential for sustainable development, features a robust cell wall composed of three primary biopolymers: Cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin [75–80]. These components collectively form a natural fiber composite material. From the nanoscale cell walls to the macroscopic wood stems, wood displays a distinctive hierarchical porous structure containing a network of micro-nano channels that enables efficient transport of water, ions, and nutrients (Fig. 1) [75,81]. Leveraging this unique biological architecture, wood holds broad application prospects in designing multiphase separation systems, energy storage materials, catalytic carriers, and other advanced fields [75,76,81–84]. Specifically, carbonized wood obtained through high-temperature pyrolysis not only preserves the original multi-level pore structure and high specific surface area of wood but also demonstrates remarkable chemical stability [85,86]. Moreover, the nanoscale rough surface formed during pyrolysis facilitates precise regulation and confinement of metal species deposition, ensuring uniform distribution and stable immobilization of metal active sites [75,82,85]. This type of catalyst not only has the advantages of low cost and low energy consumption in preparation, but also is highly consistent with the concepts of green chemistry and low-carbon development. Meanwhile, since wood-derived catalysts usually retain their complete form, they can be directly applied to large-scale catalytic units, which is more conducive to the construction of efficient advanced oxidation systems [72,73,75,78,82–84,87].

    Figure 1

    Figure 1.  Layered porous structure of the hollow channels arranged longitudinally in the wood. Reproduced with permission [75]. Copyright 2020, Nature Publishing Group.
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    The development timeline of wood-derived catalysts applied to Fenton-like systems was illustrated in Fig. 2 [79,82,84,88]. The development of catalytic sites has undergone a transformation from traditional nano-metal anchored onto the wood-derived materials to efficient and precise loading of metal single-atom sites [76,81,82,84,86]. The catalytic carrier has gradually evolved from the initial carbonized wood as the carrier to the bionic design of metal 3D printed catalysts based on the microstructure of wood [79]. The research on catalytic mechanisms has also evolved from merely enhancing the generation of radicals to the selective regulation of radical and nonradical pathways [80,82,89,90]. This advancement has further promoted the development and practical application of Fenton-like catalytic devices centered on wood-based catalysts [54,80,84]. However, there remains a lack of comprehensive and systematic reviews focusing on the Fenton-like system based on wood-derived catalysts.

    Figure 2

    Figure 2.  Timeline for the developments of wood-derived catalysts for green Fenton-like chemistry. Reproduced with permission [82]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier. Reproduced with permission [79]. Copyright 2024, Nature Publishing Group. Reproduced with permission [88]. Copyright 2025, John Wiley & Sons. Reproduced with permission [84]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier.
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    Process diagram of wood-derived catalysts for green Fenton-like chemistry from basic mechanisms to catalytic modules and future inspiration was presented in Fig. 3. In summary, this work will systematically access the structural designs of wood-derived catalysts based on versatile nano-metal sites and single-atom sites. It will also comprehensively evaluate the Fenton-like activity and stability of these wood-derived catalysts, as well as their mass transfer properties. Furthermore, the development of catalytic modules for wood-derived catalysts and the critical challenges currently faced will be analyzed in detail (Fig. 3). On this basis, we further review the progress of wood biomimetic catalysts for enhancing material stability and expanding industrial applications (with constituent materials primarily focusing on metals such as stainless steel). This paper aims to systematically evaluate the characteristics of wood-based catalysts in Fenton-like systems in terms of catalytic sites, catalytic performance and mechanism, catalytic equipment, and applications, and to look forward to their future development trends.

    Figure 3

    Figure 3.  Process diagram of wood-derived catalysts for green Fenton-like chemistry from basic mechanisms to catalytic modules and future inspiration. Reproduced with permission [79]. Copyright 2024, Nature Publishing Group. Reproduced with permission [80]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier.
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    2. Structure designs of wood-derived catalysts

    2.1 Nano-metal sites

    The oxygen-containing functional groups in wood, such as hydroxyl and carboxyl groups, exhibit certain catalytic activities toward various oxidants. However, their catalytic performance remains insufficient to achieve an excellent level. Consequently, it is typically necessary to introduce various forms of metal active centers into the pores or channels of wood-derived catalysts to enhance their catalytic effect. These introduced catalytic sites primarily include nano-metal sites (e.g., metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), nano-metal carbon compounds, or nano-metal oxides) and single-atom metal sites [76,82,84,87,88,90].

    Basically, the nano-metal materials have been intensively utilized as the effective metal sites anchored in the wood-derived catalysts [82,88]. Pang et al. developed an Fe/Co nano-metal/wood catalyst (denoted as Fe/Co@WC) by utilizing poplar wood with a micro-nanoporous hierarchy and excellent mechanical properties as a carbon-based precursor (Figs. 4a and b) [82]. Prior to metal loading, two critical pretreatment steps were conducted: (ⅰ) Selective removal of most lignin and hemicellulose from natural wood using NaOH and Na2SO3 to create a cellulose-rich wood framework. The elimination of amorphous components in wood would facilitate the in situ formation of additional pores and pits between cellulose fibers, thereby enhancing the specific surface area and providing abundant anchoring sites for metals. (ⅱ) Conversion of hydroxyl groups on the C6 carbon of cellulose into carboxyl groups via 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine oxide (TEMPO)-mediated oxidation. The wood would undergo a straightforward impregnation process following the TEMPO oxidation [82], enabling the chelation of metal ions and ensuring uniform distribution of metal particles across its surface. To precisely control metal nucleation and growth, Zn2+ ions were introduced alongside Fe3+ and Co2+ ions into the solvent system. Subsequently, under high-temperature pyrolysis, the treated wood was transformed into a carbon matrix. The reductive nature of carbon would reduce Fe3+ and Co2+ ions into Fe/Co alloys, while zinc volatilized from the carbon surface, leaving behind numerous vacancies. Ultimately, well-dispersed and low-loaded Fe/Co nanoparticles (NPs) were anchored onto the wood-derived carbon (Figs. 4c and d). In fact, this method exhibited versatility, allowing for the loading of various single-metal (Fe, Co, Mn, Ni) or bimetallic components (Fe/Co, Fe/Mn, Co/Mn, etc.) onto diverse carbonized woods [47,76,91]. For example, the Co salt precursors were migrated and anchored on the surface of carbonized wood (CW) during ultrafast heating at 1000 K, leading to the formation of uniformly dispersed Co NPs (Figs. 4e and f) [88]. The transmission electron microscopy (TEM) characterization confirmed that Co NPs, with an average particle size of 50 nm, were uniformly deposited within the vertical channels of CW without any observable agglomeration (Figs. 4g and h). Sun et al. developed the Fe3C laden wood-derived catalyst (Fe3C/N@BsB) by using the balsa wood as the natural support and potassium ferrocyanide as the precursor [92]. The color of the balsa wood gradually turned yellow owing to the coating of iron ions, and further transformed into a black, metallic, carbon-based structure during the carbonization and pyrolysis processes (Fig. 4i). The balsa-derived biocha exhibited a honeycomb-like structure, where each channel consisted of a hollow-fiber tube with smooth surfaces and dense arrangement (Fig. 4j). In contrast, small particles were adhered to the hollow-fiber tube walls which resulted in a roughened fibrous tubular morphology of Fe3C/N@BsB (Fig. 4k). Xia reported the successful growth of iron-manganese oxide nanosheets on the microchannels of carbonized wood [83], thereby constructing a novel three-dimensional wood-derived block for efficient wastewater treatment. Wood-based carbon framework not only functioned as a three-dimensional matrix supporting bimetallic NPs but also facilitated the unhindered mass diffusion through its numerous open channels and stratified pores on the channel walls.

    Figure 4

    Figure 4.  (a) Actual photo of Fe/Co@WC-800. (b) SEM images of Fe/Co@WC-800. (c) TEM images of Fe/Co@WC-800 and (d) corresponding enlarged section. Reproduced with permission [82]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier. (e) Actual photo of the Co@CW. (f) SEM of Co NPs anchored on the CW. (g) TEM of the Co@CW and (h) relevant elemental mappings. Reproduced with permission [88]. Copyright 2025, John Wiley & Sons. (ⅰ) Surface appearance changes of balsa wood during the Fe3C loading. (j, k) SEM image of BsB and Fe3C/N@BsB. Reproduced with permission [92]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier.
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    In fact, the growth of metal-based NPs on the wood-derived substrates has been intensively focused on the MOFs as anchored sites [47,87,91]. The self-generation of MOFs on wood-derived carriers could be attributed to the abundance of oxygen-containing functional groups (e.g., hydroxyl and carboxyl) on carbonized wood surfaces, which serve as effective nucleation sites for metal-ligand coordination. Furthermore, the hierarchical pore structure inherited from natural wood could facilitate controlled diffusion of metal ions and organic linkers, enabling spatially confined MOF crystallization through interfacial self-assembly [87,91]. Gong and colleagues reported the successful synthesis of wood-derived nitrogen-doped porous carbon materials (WNPC) via the in-situ growth of ZIF-8 on yew wood followed by carbonization process [87]. Zheng et al. developed a lightweight wood-based aerogel loaded with Cu-doped ZIF-67 [47]. The prepared samples exhibited low density, excellent compressive strength, and fully preserved the original pore structure of wood. Their high specific surface area, rich oxygen-containing functional groups, and unique porous architecture ensured the uniform dispersion of ZIF-67 NPs on the wood-based framework.

    However, the loading of metal NPs on the wood-derived substrates often suffers from non-uniform size distribution, which substantially compromises the catalytic activity and long-term stability of metal nano/wood-derived catalysts [88,93]. To address this problem, Xing et al. demonstrated that high-temperature thermal shock technology could facilitate the in situ nucleation of uniformly sized cobalt nanoparticles (Co NPs) on the cell walls of carbonized wood (CW) [88]. Specifically, the high-temperature thermal shock at 1000 K supplied sufficient thermal kinetic energy for the migration and anchoring of cobalt salts (Fig. 5a). Subsequently, rapid quenching triggered the crystallization process, resulting in the formation of uniformly dispersed Co NPs. The entire heating-quenching cycle was completed within approximately 2 s [88]. Compared with traditional pyrolysis methods, this technique not only drastically reduced time and energy consumption but also effectively mitigated issues related to NPs agglomeration and non-uniform distribution (Figs. 5b and c). The resultant Co NPs laden CW (Co@CW-1000 K) exhibited a rigid, intact wood-based structure with ordered open channels, which function as chambers for impregnating metal salt solutions and provide critical anchoring sites for nanoparticle formation. Therefore, this strategy can also be applied as a universal preparation method to anchor other NPs on carbonized wood to form uniformly dispersed metal NPs.

    Figure 5

    Figure 5.  (a) Synthesis scheme of Co@CW-1000 K via high-temperature thermal shock technology. (b) SEM image of rapid synthesized Co@CW-1000 K. (c) SEM image of slow synthesized Co@CW samples by conventional pyrolysis processes. Reproduced with permission [88]. Copyright 2025, John Wiley & Sons.
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    Based on the high-temperature thermal shock strategy, Gan et al. proposed a self-encapsulation technology driven by surface defects, successfully encapsulating high-entropy alloys (HEAs) inside activated carbonized wood (ACW), thereby constructing an electrocatalyst with excellent stability [93]. This technology utilized a 2060 K Joule heating and rapid cooling process (Fig. 6a). During the formation of HEAs, protective carbon shells were spontaneously generated at defect sites (Figs. 6b–f), significantly enhancing the structural stability of the catalyst. As a result, the encapsulated high-entropy alloys prepared by the high-temperature thermal shock strategy exhibited very low metal leaching during Fenton-like reactions. Basically, the high-temperature thermal shock technology, which induced defect sites to self-encapsulate carbon shells via transient extreme temperature gradients, offered a novel approach for developing nano-metal/wood-based Fenton catalysts. This method not only mitigated the issues of metal nanoparticle agglomeration and active component loss during reactions but also leveraged the multi-level pore structure of the wood-derived carbon matrix to facilitate mass transfer and maximize the exposure of active sites. Looking ahead, further exploration into the compatibility of this strategy with other transition metals, as well as the dynamic regulatory mechanism of the carbon shell on hydrogen peroxide activation pathways, could enhance the practical application of highly stable Fenton-like catalytic systems.

    Figure 6

    Figure 6.  (a) Schematic diagram of the synthesis of HEAs@ACW by rapid quenching by Joule heating. (b) The mechanism by which defect-driven surface engineering enabling HEAs to achieve self-encapsulation. (c) SEM image of HEAs@ACW with low distortion multi-channel structure. (d) SEM image of HEAs@ACW. (e) TEM image of HEAs@ACW. (f) HRTEM image of HEAs@ACW with HEAs wrapped in carbon layers. Reproduced with permission [93]. Copyright 2024, John Wiley & Sons.
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    2.2 Single-atom sites

    In addition to conventional nano-metal loading in wood-derived carbon pores or carbon-encapsulated structures, scaling down metal particles to the atomic level could further maximize catalytic efficiency [81]. For instance, Zhong et al. developed an innovative dual-functional strategy for large-scale synthesis of plate-like single-atom catalysts (SACs) [81]. Leveraging the established use of Lewis acids in the pulping industry for wood pretreatment (e.g., cellulose hydrolysis into 5-hydroxymethylfurfural), their approach employed FeCl3 to simultaneously achieve partial hydrolysis of wood polysaccharides (cellulose/hemicellulose) and in situ iron incorporation (Figs. 7a-c). This process generated abundant nanopores while immobilizing Fe3+ ions within the microchannels. Subsequent carbonization transformed the iron species into nitrogen-coordinated Fe single atoms stabilized in the hierarchical carbon matrix derived from wood. The single-atom sites could be confirmed by the advanced characterization methods, such as element-selective X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) measurement, 57Fe Mössbauer spectrum, and aberration-corrected HAADF-STEM (Figs. S1a-g in Supporting information). Xu and co-workers have developed a series of lignin-based SACs via the chelation of metal ions with the oxygen-containing groups in the lignin, followed by the high-temperature pyrolysis [31,94]. The chelation reaction based on the lignin could efficiently improve the atomic dispersation of single atoms in the lignin-based catalysts.

    Figure 7

    Figure 7.  (a) Schematic illustration of the fabrication procedure of SAC-FeN-WPC. (b) SEM image of SAC-FeN-WPC. (c) Aberration-corrected HAADF-STEM images of the SAC-FeN-WPC. Reproduced with permission [81]. Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society.
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    Despite this breakthrough, current examples of SACs anchored on wood-derived substrates remain scarce, primarily due to challenges in (ⅰ) balancing controlled hydrolysis with metal precursor dispersion during synthesis, (ⅱ) maintaining atomic-scale metal stability under harsh carbonization conditions, and (ⅲ) overcoming the structural heterogeneity inherent in natural wood substrates, which complicates uniform atomic site distribution. Although numerous examples of lignin-derived single-atom catalysts exist [31,94,95], these catalysts are typically in powder form and lack the well-defined structural characteristics inherent to wood substrates.

    3. Fenton-like chemistry of wood-derived catalysts

    3.1 Fenton-like activity and stability of wood-derived catalysts based on nano-metal sites

    Thank to the efficient surface loading or carbon coating of various metal active structures (particularly nano-metal sites) by wood-derived substrates [80,82,88], wood-derived catalysts have exhibited remarkable performance in the treatment of refractory organic pollutants. Pang et al. developed a catalyst by integrating carbon materials derived from natural wood with bimetallic Fe/Co sites for activating peroxymonosulfate (PMS), thereby significantly enhancing the degradation efficiency of ciprofloxacin (CIP) [82]. The bimetallic Fe/Co sites displayed high dispersion and excellent stability on carbon-based surfaces, with metal leaching only < 5% of conventional Fe/Co counterparts. Experimental results indicated that this catalyst achieves a 100% removal rate of CIP within 4 min, maintaining a removal rate of 92.8% after four consecutive cycles, thus highlighting its superior separability and reusability. Gong and colleagues prepared a nitrogen co-doped porous wood-based catalyst by growing ZIF-8 in situ on yew wood and conducting subsequent carbonization treatment [87]. When this material was used as a self-supporting electro-Fenton cathode, it could efficiently achieve in-situ generation of H2O2 as well as ultrafast degradation of pollutants. Specifically, the graphite-N structure in the catalyst significantly promoted the electron transfer process between the carbon surface and oxygen molecules, while pyridine-N effectively enhanced the selectivity of the oxygen reduction reaction. Thanks to the abundant nitrogen and oxygen functional groups in the catalyst, the accumulation of H2O2 was approximately three times higher than that of pure carbon materials. Furthermore, the loaded ZIF-8 nanostructure could further efficiently activate the in-situ H2O2 generation, thereby significantly enhancing the removal efficiency of the target pollutants.

    In fact, the stability of these wood-derived catalysts was also superior than those of other carbon-based substrates [76,83]. Xia et al. reported that iron-manganese oxide nanosheets (Fe-Mn-O NSs) grown in situ on the microchannels of carbonized wood could effectively address the surface defects of the catalyst, optimize surface charge distribution, and facilitate the charge transfer process [83]. Moreover, the microchannel structure of carbonized wood not only minimized the loss of nanosheets during the reaction but also ensured their structural integrity, thereby significantly enhancing both the catalytic activity and stability of the Fenton process. Wang et al. discovered that Fe3C@Fe-modified carbonized wood fibers exhibited an exceptionally strong degradation capability toward organic dyes [76]. Additionally, the multi-layered porous structure of the carbonized wood fibers offered superior protection for Fe3C@Fe with trace iron leaching, ensuring that its activation properties remained highly stable after multiple cycles, with a degradation loss of < 5%. By contrast, the performance of traditional metal-loaded carbon-based materials typically decreased by over 20% after a comparable number of cycles and the metal leaching could account for > 10% of the total metal loading in the resulant catalysts [22,96]. These findings clearly highlighted the superior stability of catalysts supported by carbonized wood.

    It was reported that the deactivation of wood-derived catalysts was always based on the attachments of intermediates of products rather than the release of nano-metal sites [3,22,96]. Gan and co-workers found that the issue of catalyst deactivation caused by intermediate products during the pollutant degradation process could be effectively addressed through a re-shock treatment [88]. Due to the rapid nature of high-temperature thermal shock, they demonstrated that the deactivated Co@CW could be reactivated by re-shocking it at 1900 K (Fig. 8a). The degradation intermediates adhered to the surface of the deactivated Co@CW-1000 K were carbonized into a layer of graphite carbon (Figs. 8b-d), which facilitated electron transfer during pollutant degradation. Consequently, the cobalt-based catalyst synthesized using high-temperature thermal shock technology exhibited excellent recyclability and structure integrity (Figs. 8e and f), maintaining a degradation efficiency exceeding 90% over 20 cycles without significant metal loss (Fig. 8g). Therefore, wood-based catalysts prepared through this high-temperature thermal shock process could achieve both high degradation efficiency and excellent cyclic stability in water treatment applications. Moreover, this method demonstrated universal applicability for the synthesis of other metal nano/wood-based catalysts.

    Figure 8

    Figure 8.  (a) Schematic diagram of the "deactivation/regeneration" process of the Co@CW-1000 K catalyst, and (b-d) SEM images of the catalyst in the corresponding deactivation-regeneration steps. (e, f) SEM cross-sectional images of Co@CW-1000 K. (g) Degradation efficiency results during 20 cycle tests. Reproduced with permission [88]. Copyright 2025, John Wiley & Sons.
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    3.2 Fenton-like activity and stability of wood-derived catalysts based on single-atom sites

    Compared with nano-metal sites, single-atom sites always exhibit higher uniform dispersion within the pores or channels of wood-derived or lignin-derived catalysts, which would affect the activity and stability in the targeted Fenton-like reactions [25,31,97–99]. Guo et al. successfully prepared three kinds of single-atom catalysts (SACs) loaded with single atoms of iron, cobalt and copper respectively using lignin as the carrier (Figs. 9a-d) [31]. Studies showed that the degradation efficiencies of these catalysts towards different pollutants were significantly higher than those of nano-scale counterparts, and also exhibited a very trace metal leaching. In addition, the degradation performances of the catalysts were closely related to the electronic structures of their single-atom sites. Specifically, the iron and cobalt single-atom sites could facilitate the formation of more stable single-atom/PMS complexes by effectively interacting with PMS molecules, thereby greatly promoting the electron transfer from pollutant molecules to single atom/PMS complexes (Fig. 9e). This electron transfer mechanism was also closely related to the electron-donating ability of pollutants, thereby leading to a gradient distribution of radical/nonradical compositions (Fig. 9e) [31,97,99–101]. Furthermore, Qi et al. reported that lignin-based Co-SACs exhibited significantly higher activity and stability compared to lignin-based Co-NPs due to the enhanced electron transfer pathway (Figs. 9g and h) [94]. In addition, the metal leaching of single-atom sites was very low (< 0.1 mg/L), which could also help improve the stability of resultant wood-derived catalysts.

    Figure 9

    Figure 9.  (a) Fabrication scheme of lignin-based M-SACs (Fe, Co, Cu). (b-d) HADDF-STEM images of lignin-based M-SACs (Fe, Co, Cu). (e) Current change of electrode laden with different lignin-based M-SACs (Fe, Co, Cu) for determining the electron transfer pathway. (f) Gradient distribution of free radical/nonradical composition based on different pollutants. Reproduced with permission [31]. Copyright 2024, PNAS. (g) Schematic mechanism of lignin-based Co-SACs for pollutant degradation via PMS activation. (h) Comparison of lignin-based Co-SACs with other catalysts for degradation activities. Reproduced with permission [94]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier.
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    Basically, single-atom sites anchored on wood-derived or lignin-derived carriers demonstrated superior catalytic activity and stability in Fenton-like reactions due to their highly uniform atomic dispersion and optimized electronic configurations, which facilitated efficient electron transfer and pollutant degradation. The enhanced coordination between different single-atom sites and oxidants could promote the radical/nonradical pathway modulation, offering tunable degradation mechanisms governed by the electronic structures of the metal centers and wood-derived or lignin-derived carriers. However, wood-derived catalysts based on single-atom sites exhibited a lower density of active sites per unit carrier compared to those of wood-derived catalysts with nano-metal sites in the Fenton-like reactions, which may constrain the efficiency of pollutant treatment in actual fields. Additionally, the existing preparation methods for wood-supported single-atom catalysts lack universality compared to the wood-supported NPs catalysts, thus limiting the application scope of these wood-supported single-atom catalysts. How to realize the scale-up fabrications and applications of wood-supported single-atom catalysts are still not yet initiated. Further optimization of these methods is also needed to reduce production costs. In contrast, wood-supported NP catalysts, which are amenable to scale-up fabrication and Fenton-like applications, have been extensively investigated. Additionally, certain synthesis strategies, such as high-temperature thermal shock technology, have been applied with a degree of universality.

    3.3 Oxidation pathways analysis based on the wood-derived catalysts

    Some studies reported that carbonized wood or biochar alone could activate PMS to degrade pollutants due to the synergy of activated carbon surface as well as the doped heteroatom [102]. However, their catalytic activities were always inferior, and therefore, various metal species with different sizes have been anchored onto the surface or channels of the carbonized wood to improve their catalytic capacities. These modification processes would change the electronic structures of the wood-derived catalysts, which would modulate not only the catalytic performances but also the oxidation pathways in the Fenton-like systems [92,102,103]. To identify the roles of active sites in ROS alteration of metal species and metal-free species in these wood-derived catalysts (Figs. S2a and b in Supporting information), Li and co-authors developed a series of wood-derived catalysts with different active site contents (i.e., Co/Fe NPs, graphitic N, C=O groups, carbon defects) and carried out the correlation analysis between the variable quantities (ΔY) of active site contents and ROS contributions [103]. The correlations between kobs values of ROS and ΔY of active sites revealed that carbon defects in wood-derived catalysts could mediate PMS activation, thereby facilitating pollutant degradation via the non-radical pathway (Figs. S2c-h in Supporting information). Moreover, graphitic N on the catalyst surface could modulate the local electron density of adjacent C atoms, thus enhancing electron transfer between PMS and C atoms for ROS generation. Similarly, C=O groups played a crucial role in PMS activation to produce 1O2. Additionally, the anchored Co and Fe NPs were identified as effective PMS activators for generating radicals (SO4•‒ and •OH). Sun et al. also reported that the wood-derived catalysts anchored with Fe3C NPs could generate large populations of SO4•‒ and •OH for pollutant degradation [92]. Further analysis using density functional theory (DFT) revealed that Fe/Co sites on wood-derived carbon exhibited relatively high adsorption energy (Figs. 10a-f). The density of state diagram of Fe/Co NPs also showed the strong interaction between Fe/Co sites and PMS (Fig. 10g), contributing to the enhancement of PMS activation for O—O bond cleavage to generate SO4•‒ and •OH [82].

    Figure 10

    Figure 10.  Adsorption models of PMS onto the surfaces of (a) Fe NPs, (b) Co NPs and (c) Fe/Co NPs. Charge density differences of (d) Fe NPs, (e) Co NPs and (f) Fe/Co NPs. (g) Density of states of different NPs. Reproduced with permission [82]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier. Optimized structure model of (h) NPs Co/C and (i) SA Co-N/C. (j-m) Top and side views of different charge densities of NPs Co/C and SA Co-N/C. Reproduced with permission [94]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier.
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    However, the oxidation pathways based on the wood-derived catalysts were closely related to the sizes of metal species. It was reported that single-atom configurations surpass nanoarchitectures in facilitating oxidant activation by providing maximized active site accessibility and atomic utilization efficiency [25,62,104,105]. Their precisely tailored electronic structures enable effective modulation of charge transfer pathways, favoring the generation and stabilization of non-radical intermediates (mainly based on PMS, and PAA systems) through controlled electron-coupled mechanisms [25,62,104,105]. Qi et al. reported that compared with the Co NPs, more charge accumulation was observed at the single Co sites anchored onto lignin-based catalysts (Figs. 10h-m), which would enhance the charge redistribution to produce more electron-rich catalytic active sites for accelerated the electron transfer process (ETP) for pollutant degradation [94]. As a result, the oxidation pathways based on single-atom sites anchored in these wood-derived catalysts were always dominated by the nonradical pathways. In contrast, the oxidation pathways for wood-derived catalysts loaded with metal NPs involved both radical and nonradical pathways, with their proportions being regulated by the varying amounts of active site contents.

    It is worth emphasizing that the current research on wood-derived catalysts based on DFT calculation predominantly centers on the adsorption of oxidants or the oxidation behavior induced by the loaded metal structures. However, systematic DFT investigations into the metal-support interactions between metal active sites and the wood-derived carbon support remain scarce. Additionally, computational simulation analyses of the confined environment within wood pores/channels warrant further in-depth exploration.

    3.4 Mass transfer in the wood-derived catalysts

    Considering the porosity of wood-derived catalysts, it is essential to further assess their mass transfer efficiency within the pores/channels during Fenton-like reactions. Zhang et al. demonstrated the substantial impact of this structure on fluid transfer performance through hydrodynamic simulations of the wood-like channel architecture (Fig. 11a) [79]. Moreover, hierarchical optimization of the channel structure can overcome the limitations of traditional micro-lattice materials and exhibit unique spatial regulation capabilities in terms of flow velocity characteristics (Figs. 11b-d). These pore structures and flow velocity properties are anticipated to significantly influence the generation and transport of ROS during Fenton-like catalysis, thereby determining the degradation efficiency of pollutants.

    Figure 11

    Figure 11.  (a) Schematic model of metamaterials inspired by wood arranged along the overlapping direction. (b, c) Simulated fluid velocity distribution within traditional and wood-based metamaterials. (d) Experimental and calculated permeability results of traditional micro-lattices and wood-inspired metamaterial. Reproduced with permission [79]. Copyright 2024, Nature Publishing Group. (e) Fabrication diagram of ZIF-67@wood. (f) Optical microscope image of the longitudinal section of ZIF-67@wood. (g) Schematic diagram of MB catalytic degradation pathway in the channel of ZIF-67@wood. Reproduced with permission [80]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier.
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    Based on this research context, Wang et al. utilized poplar wood as a substrate to fabricate ZIF-67@wood for the degradation of organic pollutants (Fig. 11e) [80]. Poplar wood is abundant in fibers, which can provide robust mechanical support and evenly distributed channels for efficient liquid transport. The results indicated that ZIF-67@wood exhibited exceptional catalytic performance, primarily attributed to the synergy between the structural advantages of wood and the catalytic activity of ZIF-67. Specifically, the vertically aligned wood channels possess excellent hydrophilicity, promoting rapid transport of pollutant or oxidant solution within the wood filter. Notably, the large lumen of poplar wood (approximately 100 µm in diameter) serves as the primary conduit for liquid transport, while the surrounding smaller fibers mainly offer structural support and play a limited role in liquid transport during filtration. To confirm this conclusion, the same groups further investigated catalytic degradation within wood channels by filtering a mixed solution of dye (methylene blue, MB) and PMS into ZIF-67@wood and observing the process using an optical microscope (Fig. 11f) [80]. The findings revealed severe staining on the upper surface of the wood filter, indicating preferential flow through the large lumen channels, with minimal participation from the fibers in liquid transport. As the solution penetrated deeper into the filter, the blue color progressively diminished until it vanished entirely. This phenomenon suggested that MB molecules were gradually removed at the catalytic sites of ZIF-67 nanocrystals anchored within the channels. In contrast, the MB solution without PMS remained blue throughout its passage through the channel, underscoring the critical role of ZIF-67 nanocrystals and wood channels in MB catalytic degradation.

    Therefore, when the pollutant/oxidant mixture flows through the channels inside the wood-derived catalysts, the uniformly distributed nano-metal sites/single-atom sites ensure sufficient contact and reaction with the pollutants due to the improved mass transfer rates. Further, considering the structural characteristics of the catalytic sites as well as their DFT calculations, it can be known that the catalytic sites within the pores/channels can effectively adsorb the oxidants, generating different ROS through different adsorption coordination configurations. For example, the binding of PMS by the anchored nano-metal sites will mainly generate radicals for attacking the pollutants, while the metal single-atom sites will mainly trigger the nonradicals via PMS binding and activation [106–108]. If the pores/channels in the wood-derived catalysts further reach to the nanoscale confinement size, a confinement effect may occur, and the ROS abundance of the catalytic systems will be significantly increased, thereby achieving efficient and stable pollutant degradation (Fig. 11g). This mechanism clarifies that the wood-based catalysts possess stronger mass transfer characteristics, which is attributed to their abundant pores and channels. These pores and channels further facilitate the generation of ROS, thereby promoting the efficient reaction capabilities with similar Fenton reaction activity [80,82,109–113].

    4. Catalytic modules of wood-derived catalysts

    The development of novel Fenton-like catalysts based on the structural designability of natural wood holds significant engineering application value. In contrast to traditional powder catalysts, which are prone to loss and difficult to recover [25,99,101,114–118], wood-derived catalysts possess an inherent three-dimensional porous framework and mechanical strength [76,80,82,83,87,109,113]. Through directional processing, these catalysts can form self-supporting structural units, providing an ideal material foundation for constructing efficient continuous flow catalytic systems [80,84,88]. This customizable feature confers significant advantages in water treatment device design, establishing a critical basis for achieving large-scale pollutant degradation.

    Xing et al. fabricated the Co@CW-1000 K catalyst into disc-shaped filter membranes (Φ 20 mm × 2 mm) and integrated the resulting catalyst into a multi-stage dynamic continuous processing system (Figs. 12a-c) [88]. Continuous catalytic degradation of Rhodamine B could be achieved under the drive of a peristaltic pump via a custom-designed five-stage series filtration device (Fig. 12d). Specifically, different flow rates (0.5–5 mL/min) were established by precisely adjusting the rotational speed of the peristaltic pump, thereby controlling the interaction time (hydraulic retention time (HRT) = 2–20 min) between the solution and the catalyst. The operational parameters of this reaction system highlighted the following: (ⅰ) The intrinsic mechanical stability of the wood-based catalytic unit ensured the prolonged device operation; (ⅱ) The staged filtration structure enhanced treatment efficiency by increasing the contact probability between pollutants and active sites; (ⅲ) The fluid dynamics design facilitated synergistic optimization of PMS activation and pollutant degradation during the dynamic process. Wang et al. developed a catalytic filter based on ZIF-67@wood via taking advantage of the natural structural superiority of wood and the excellent catalytic activity of ZEF-67 (Figs. 12e and f) [80]. Under gravity-driven conditions, this filter exhibited a high flux of up to 5119 L m−2 h−1 and achieved > 90% removal efficiency towards the targeted pollutants. They further accessed the influence of the microstructure characteristics of wood from different tree species on the water purification performances. The results showed that the poplar wood filter (ZIF-67@poplar wood) could achieve the optimal balance between removal efficiency and flux due to its abundant pore structure and uniform-sized channels. It was worth noting that ZIF-67@poplar filters could also be assembled in series to form a continuous flow catalytic reactor, demonstrating excellent catalytic stability and practical application potential.

    Figure 12

    Figure 12.  (a) Actual photo of bare wood. (b) carbonized wood. (c) Co@CW-1000 K filters. (d) Device for catalytic degradation of RhB. Reproduced with permission [88]. Copyright 2025, John Wiley & Sons. (e) Photograph of ZIF-67@wood; (f) Photograph of the gravity-driven filtration setup for catalytic degradation of MB. Reproduced with permission [80]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier.
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    In fact, compared with other wood structures, bamboo exhibited more remarkable pipe structures, controllable dimensional characteristics and excellent mechanical strength, and thus was highly suitable as a model material for catalytic reaction devices (Figs. 13a and b) [84,119–121]. Li et al. reported that the microchannels in bamboo could provide an ideal reaction space for the loading of nano-silver (Figs. 13c and d). By taking advantage of the inherent pore characteristics of bamboo, nano-silver could be well anchored to the pore walls while maintaining the original microstructure and mechanical properties of bamboo (Figs. 13e-i) [84]. When the mixed solution containing NaBH4 and nitro-aromatic compounds flowed through bamboo channels, efficient interactions occurred among the bamboo microchannels, the nano-silver immobilized on the channel walls, and the reactants, thereby achieving a rapid degradation reaction towards nitro-aromatic compounds. In addition, the continuous flow design could effectively promote the desorption process of the adsorbed products on the catalyst surface, further enhancing the catalytic efficiency (Fig. 13j). By precisely regulating the flow parameters, the continuous catalytic reduction reaction of nitro-aromatic compounds was successfully achieved. The experimental results showed that after five cycles (each lasting for 11 h), the catalytic system can still maintain > 90% of the catalytic performance, demonstrating efficient and stable catalytic characteristics.

    Figure 13

    Figure 13.  (a) A typical bamboo sample. (b) A bamboo stick with a diameter of approximately 10 mm and its cross-section. (c) Scanning electron microscope images of bundle bundles in the parenchyma of parenchyma cells. (d) SEM images of bamboo microchannels. SEM images of (e-g) bamboo microchannels with different Ag loads and their oblique sections. (h) TEM image of bamboo microchannel loaded with Ag NPs. (i) HAADF-STEM images of Ag NPs samples and their size distribution. (j) Design of bamboo catalytic equipment and its stable continuous flow performance. Reproduced with permission [84]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier.
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    However, wood-derived catalysts, as Fenton-like catalytic systems, still encounter numerous significant challenges in practical applications. First, the majority of current research focuses on treating simulated wastewaters under laboratory conditions (e.g., organic dyes or phenolic compounds), with insufficient systematic case studies addressing real-world complex water bodies (e.g., high-salinity industrial wastewater or multi-component municipal sewage). Moreover, most experiments are restricted to short-term operations (ranging from several hours to several days), and there is a lack of stability verification data for continuous operation exceeding three months to substantiate their long-term performance. Second, the current equipment design remains relatively rudimentary, primarily confined to small-scale reactors (e.g., batch beaker test devices or column reactors), which struggle to meet the requirements of various scales and application scenarios. Engineering scale-up faces multiple technical bottlenecks, such as inadequate catalyst immobilization efficiency and suboptimal fluid dynamics adaptability. Lastly, an integrated full-chain solution for actual water body treatment (e.g., catalyst regeneration, metal ion recovery, and by-product control) has yet to be fully developed, further hindering the large-scale promotion and application of this technology. In conclusion, for the design of future expansion and equipment integration, continuous operational stability, maintenance strategies, and cost analysis are the aspects that are of particular concern.

    5. Wood-inspired catalytic materials and their Fenton-like applications

    Wood-derived catalysts are characterized by their rich pipeline network and excellent mechanical strength. However, its carbon-based composition may lead to carbon dissolution during long-term operation, thereby affecting the stability of the loaded metal. Therefore, drawing on the advantages of wood structure, developing wood-inspired catalysts has become one of the important research directions in the future [79].

    Zhang et al. proposed a metamaterial design strategy based on the microstructure of Douglas fir wood [40]. Douglas fir has an extremely high aspect ratio (100 m in length and about 1.5 m in diameter), and it requires strong wind resistance and effective mechanisms to ensure that water and nutrients are transported from the roots to the top of the tree crown (Fig. 14a). Microstructure analysis indicates that the key to supporting the vigorous growth of Douglas fir lies in the bimodal pore structure formed by the interlaced distribution of its channels and fibers (Figs. 14b-d). The checkerboard pore layout can achieve efficient material transport within a limited space, while the interlaced pattern is similar to a sandwich structure, which can significantly enhance the strength of the material (Fig. 14e). Through this design, the mechanical performance and the transportation performance are decoupled, thereby achieving the collaborative optimization and superior combination (Figs. 14f and g). Based on this collaborative design, Zhang et al. developed a checkerboard-like pore structure mimicking Douglas fir by superimposing micro-lattice configurations [94]. Subsequently, through the application of 3D printing technology, cobalt (Co) was electrochemically deposited onto the surface of iron (Fe)-based metamaterials to prepare a wood-inspired Fenton-like catalyst for wastewater purification (Figs. 14h-j). Furthermore, they systematically designed a series of water purification systems that integrate structural and functional properties, utilizing wood-inspired catalysts with stainless steel as the substrate to prevent metal leaching (Figs. 15a-c). The presence of abundant channels and a high specific surface area facilitated the gradual permeation of the inlet fluid through the structure, enhancing flow velocity while ensuring sufficient contact reactions within the wood-inspired metamaterial catalyst [79]. In contrast to conventional water purification systems, which are typically multi-step and time-consuming, these metamaterial catalysts exhibited superior efficiency, lower cost, and excellent scalability (Fig. 15d). Consequently, wood-inspired metamaterial catalysts demonstrated exceptional mechanical stability, high-throughput flow rates, and efficient catalytic performance, making them highly promising candidates for replacing traditional water purification systems and driving unprecedented advancements in flow catalysis and other structure-function integrated applications.

    Figure 14

    Figure 14.  (a) Photos of Douglas fir. (b) SEM morphology of the cross-section of Douglas fir. (c) Magnified SEM image. (d) Schematic diagram of the interlaced pore distribution of macropores and micropores. (e) Three-dimensional and frontal views of a traditional periodic microlattice with uniform pores. (f) A schematic diagram of the micro-lattice overlap of bimodal pores inspired by the microstructure of wood. (g) A 3D and front view similar to the interlaced pore structure of Douglas fir. (h) The electrochemical deposition process of 3D printing materials in Co-ion solution. (i) Synthesized wood-bionic catalysts through 3D printing and electrochemical deposition processes. (j) A wood-inspired Fenton-like catalytic system. Reproduced with permission [79]. Copyright 2024, Nature Publishing Group.
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    Figure 15

    Figure 15.  (a-c) Actual image of 3D-printed wood-inspired catalysts and their relative density and surface areas. (d) Possible applications of the wood-inspired catalysis systems for water purification. Reproduced with permission [79]. Copyright 2024, Nature Publishing Group.
    DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

    In fact, the biomimetic porous structure of wood can also be achieved via other alternative approaches [122,123]. For instance, Yang et al. proposed a novel strategy for designing highly efficient and reusable catalysts [123]. Specifically, they incorporated Cu as a reducing agent into a metal glass (MG)-based catalyst and fabricated a three-dimensional hierarchical porous structure using laser 3D printing technology. The resultant 3D-printed porous MG/Cu catalyst demonstrated remarkable catalytic efficiency in the degradation of Rhodamine B with normalized rate constant approximately 620 times higher than that of commercial nano-zero-valent iron, and also significantly outperforming most Fenton-like catalysts reported to date [58,124–128]. Notably, this catalyst exhibited exceptional reusability, maintaining high efficiency even after > 100 cycles of use.

    Wood-inspired catalysts could achieve high material controllability through the design of artificial carrier structures and their functionalization. These catalysts can precisely regulate the distribution of active sites, pore channel sizes, and orientations, thereby optimizing mass transfer efficiency and enhancing catalytic performance. To improve durability, they often incorporate high-cost reinforced carrier materials (such as carbon fiber frameworks or biomimetic composite materials), which significantly enhance corrosion resistance and sintering resistance, allowing the catalysts to maintain superior stability under harsh reaction conditions, including high temperatures, high pressures, or strong corrosive environments. Furthermore, leveraging the flexibility of structural design, these catalysts can realize multi-functional synergistic catalysis through strategies such as integrating multiple metal sites or constructing heterojunctions, thus broadening their application potential. However, the development of such catalysts also encounters substantial challenges: (ⅰ) The reliance on high-purity carrier materials and intricate loading processes results in elevated production costs, limiting economic feasibility; second, the biomimetic construction technology (e.g., template replication and directional assembly) involves multiple precise operational steps, posing a high technical barrier. (ⅱ) Deviations of some synthesized carriers from natural wood substrates may raise sustainability concerns, necessitating a trade-off between performance enhancement and environmental friendliness.

    6. Perspectives

    As a novel type of environmentally friendly materials, wood-derived catalysts exhibit advantages in the following aspects: Firstly, the inherent pores/channels of wood significantly can enhance mass transfer efficiency during catalytic reactions. Secondly, the three-dimensional framework retained after carbonization demonstrates excellent durability, making it suitable for prolonged use. Thirdly, raw materials are sourced from renewable resources, resulting in relatively low environmental impact during production. Lastly, wood-derived catalysts can be directly applied to customized equipment for Fenton-like catalytic systems, effectively addressing the issue that traditional powder catalysts require loading or pressing into shape before large-scale application. However, challenges persist: Simplistic disc-shaped designs limit pollutant adaptability, active substances detach over time, and stability falters under real-world temperature/pH fluctuations. Energy-intensive carbonization hinders scalable production, while rudimentary equipment and lab-focused studies on simulated wastewater (e.g., dyes/phenols) lack validation for complex water bodies or long-term (> 3 months) operation. Full-chain solutions for catalyst regeneration, pollutant recovery, and byproduct control remain underdeveloped. Future efforts should prioritize composite systems blending industrial materials, optimized staged carbonization/loading for active-substance adhesion, bionic pore-structure designs via computational modeling, dynamic water quality databases for adaptive systems, and cost-effective continuous production paired with integrated pollutant lifecycle management—bridging lab research to industrial water treatment applications.

    Declaration of competing interest

    The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

    CRediT authorship contribution statement

    Xiaoyun Lei: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Project administration, Methodology. Hanghang Zhao: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft. Chao Bai: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Investigation, Funding acquisition. Longlong Geng: Writing – original draft, Visualization. Xing Xu: Writing – review & editing, Visualization, Conceptualization.

    Acknowledgments

    The work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 52170086, 22308194, U22A20423), Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province (No. ZR2021ME013) and Shandong Provincial Excellent Youth (No. ZR2022YQ47) the doctor research start Foundation of Shaanxi University of Technology (No. SLGRCQD004), Science and Technology Innovation Team Project of Shaanxi Province (No. 2025RS-CXTD-040), the General Special Scientific Research Program of the Shaanxi Provincial Department of Education (No. 24JK0366). This work was supported by funding from Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Monocrystalline Silicon Semiconductor Materials and Technology. The authors extend their gratitude to Mr. Qi Chonghua from Scientific Compass (www.shiyanjia.com) for providing invaluable assistance.

    Supplementary materials

    Supplementary material associated with this article can be found, in the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.cclet.2025.111550.


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  • Figure 1  Layered porous structure of the hollow channels arranged longitudinally in the wood. Reproduced with permission [75]. Copyright 2020, Nature Publishing Group.

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    Figure 2  Timeline for the developments of wood-derived catalysts for green Fenton-like chemistry. Reproduced with permission [82]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier. Reproduced with permission [79]. Copyright 2024, Nature Publishing Group. Reproduced with permission [88]. Copyright 2025, John Wiley & Sons. Reproduced with permission [84]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier.

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    Figure 3  Process diagram of wood-derived catalysts for green Fenton-like chemistry from basic mechanisms to catalytic modules and future inspiration. Reproduced with permission [79]. Copyright 2024, Nature Publishing Group. Reproduced with permission [80]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier.

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    Figure 4  (a) Actual photo of Fe/Co@WC-800. (b) SEM images of Fe/Co@WC-800. (c) TEM images of Fe/Co@WC-800 and (d) corresponding enlarged section. Reproduced with permission [82]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier. (e) Actual photo of the Co@CW. (f) SEM of Co NPs anchored on the CW. (g) TEM of the Co@CW and (h) relevant elemental mappings. Reproduced with permission [88]. Copyright 2025, John Wiley & Sons. (ⅰ) Surface appearance changes of balsa wood during the Fe3C loading. (j, k) SEM image of BsB and Fe3C/N@BsB. Reproduced with permission [92]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier.

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    Figure 5  (a) Synthesis scheme of Co@CW-1000 K via high-temperature thermal shock technology. (b) SEM image of rapid synthesized Co@CW-1000 K. (c) SEM image of slow synthesized Co@CW samples by conventional pyrolysis processes. Reproduced with permission [88]. Copyright 2025, John Wiley & Sons.

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    Figure 6  (a) Schematic diagram of the synthesis of HEAs@ACW by rapid quenching by Joule heating. (b) The mechanism by which defect-driven surface engineering enabling HEAs to achieve self-encapsulation. (c) SEM image of HEAs@ACW with low distortion multi-channel structure. (d) SEM image of HEAs@ACW. (e) TEM image of HEAs@ACW. (f) HRTEM image of HEAs@ACW with HEAs wrapped in carbon layers. Reproduced with permission [93]. Copyright 2024, John Wiley & Sons.

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    Figure 7  (a) Schematic illustration of the fabrication procedure of SAC-FeN-WPC. (b) SEM image of SAC-FeN-WPC. (c) Aberration-corrected HAADF-STEM images of the SAC-FeN-WPC. Reproduced with permission [81]. Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society.

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    Figure 8  (a) Schematic diagram of the "deactivation/regeneration" process of the Co@CW-1000 K catalyst, and (b-d) SEM images of the catalyst in the corresponding deactivation-regeneration steps. (e, f) SEM cross-sectional images of Co@CW-1000 K. (g) Degradation efficiency results during 20 cycle tests. Reproduced with permission [88]. Copyright 2025, John Wiley & Sons.

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    Figure 9  (a) Fabrication scheme of lignin-based M-SACs (Fe, Co, Cu). (b-d) HADDF-STEM images of lignin-based M-SACs (Fe, Co, Cu). (e) Current change of electrode laden with different lignin-based M-SACs (Fe, Co, Cu) for determining the electron transfer pathway. (f) Gradient distribution of free radical/nonradical composition based on different pollutants. Reproduced with permission [31]. Copyright 2024, PNAS. (g) Schematic mechanism of lignin-based Co-SACs for pollutant degradation via PMS activation. (h) Comparison of lignin-based Co-SACs with other catalysts for degradation activities. Reproduced with permission [94]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier.

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    Figure 10  Adsorption models of PMS onto the surfaces of (a) Fe NPs, (b) Co NPs and (c) Fe/Co NPs. Charge density differences of (d) Fe NPs, (e) Co NPs and (f) Fe/Co NPs. (g) Density of states of different NPs. Reproduced with permission [82]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier. Optimized structure model of (h) NPs Co/C and (i) SA Co-N/C. (j-m) Top and side views of different charge densities of NPs Co/C and SA Co-N/C. Reproduced with permission [94]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier.

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    Figure 11  (a) Schematic model of metamaterials inspired by wood arranged along the overlapping direction. (b, c) Simulated fluid velocity distribution within traditional and wood-based metamaterials. (d) Experimental and calculated permeability results of traditional micro-lattices and wood-inspired metamaterial. Reproduced with permission [79]. Copyright 2024, Nature Publishing Group. (e) Fabrication diagram of ZIF-67@wood. (f) Optical microscope image of the longitudinal section of ZIF-67@wood. (g) Schematic diagram of MB catalytic degradation pathway in the channel of ZIF-67@wood. Reproduced with permission [80]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier.

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    Figure 12  (a) Actual photo of bare wood. (b) carbonized wood. (c) Co@CW-1000 K filters. (d) Device for catalytic degradation of RhB. Reproduced with permission [88]. Copyright 2025, John Wiley & Sons. (e) Photograph of ZIF-67@wood; (f) Photograph of the gravity-driven filtration setup for catalytic degradation of MB. Reproduced with permission [80]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier.

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    Figure 13  (a) A typical bamboo sample. (b) A bamboo stick with a diameter of approximately 10 mm and its cross-section. (c) Scanning electron microscope images of bundle bundles in the parenchyma of parenchyma cells. (d) SEM images of bamboo microchannels. SEM images of (e-g) bamboo microchannels with different Ag loads and their oblique sections. (h) TEM image of bamboo microchannel loaded with Ag NPs. (i) HAADF-STEM images of Ag NPs samples and their size distribution. (j) Design of bamboo catalytic equipment and its stable continuous flow performance. Reproduced with permission [84]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier.

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    Figure 14  (a) Photos of Douglas fir. (b) SEM morphology of the cross-section of Douglas fir. (c) Magnified SEM image. (d) Schematic diagram of the interlaced pore distribution of macropores and micropores. (e) Three-dimensional and frontal views of a traditional periodic microlattice with uniform pores. (f) A schematic diagram of the micro-lattice overlap of bimodal pores inspired by the microstructure of wood. (g) A 3D and front view similar to the interlaced pore structure of Douglas fir. (h) The electrochemical deposition process of 3D printing materials in Co-ion solution. (i) Synthesized wood-bionic catalysts through 3D printing and electrochemical deposition processes. (j) A wood-inspired Fenton-like catalytic system. Reproduced with permission [79]. Copyright 2024, Nature Publishing Group.

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    Figure 15  (a-c) Actual image of 3D-printed wood-inspired catalysts and their relative density and surface areas. (d) Possible applications of the wood-inspired catalysis systems for water purification. Reproduced with permission [79]. Copyright 2024, Nature Publishing Group.

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  • 发布日期:  2025-10-15
  • 收稿日期:  2025-05-30
  • 接受日期:  2025-07-06
  • 修回日期:  2025-06-23
  • 网络出版日期:  2025-07-07
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